How Dhamma Differs From Religion?

    1. What the Buddha calls Dhamma differs fundamentally from what is called Religion.
    2. What the Buddha calls Dhamma is analogous to what the European theologians call Religion.
    3. But there is no greater affinity between the two. On the other hand, the differences between the two are very great.
    4. On this account, some European theologians refuse to recognise the Buddha's Dhamma as Religion.
    5. There need be no regrets over this. The loss is theirs. It does no harm to the Buddha's Dhamma. Rather, it shows what is wanting in Religion.
    6. Instead of entering into this controversy, it is better to proceed to give an idea of Dhamma, and show how it differs from Religion.
    7. Religion, it is said, is personal, and one must keep it to oneself. One must not let it play its part in public life.
    8. Contrary to this, Dhamma is social. It is fundamentally and essentially so.
    9. Dhamma is righteousness, which means right relations between man and man in all spheres of life.
    10. From this it is evident that one man, if he is alone, does not need Dhamma.
    11. But when there are two men living in relation to each other, they must find a place for Dhamma whether they like it or not. Neither can escape it.
    12. In other words. Society cannot do without Dhamma.
    13. Society has to choose one of the three alternatives.
    14. Society may choose not to have any Dhamma as an instrument of Government.  For Dhamma is nothing if it is not an instrument of Government.
    15. This means Society chooses the road to anarchy.
    16. Secondly, Society may choose the police--i.e., dictatorship--as an instrument of Government.
    17. Thirdly, Society may choose Dhamma, plus the Magistrate wherever people fail to observe the Dhamma.
    18. In anarchy and dictatorship liberty is lost.
    19. Only in the third [case] liberty survives.
    20. Those who want liberty must therefore have Dhamma.
    21. Now what is Dhamma? and why is Dhamma necessary?  According to the Buddha, Dhamma consists of Prajna and Karuna.
    22. What is Prajna? And why Prajna? Prajna is understanding. The Buddha made Prajna one of the two corner-stones of His Dhamma because he did not wish to leave any room for superstition.
    23. What is Karuna? And why Karuna? Karuna is love. Because without it, Society can neither live nor grow; that is why the Buddha made it the second corner-stone of His Dhamma.
    24. Such is the definition of the Buddha's Dhamma.
    25. How different is this definition of Dhamma from that of Religion.
    26. So ancient, yet so modern, is the definition of Dhamma given by the Buddha.
    27. So aboriginal, yet so original.
    28. Not borrowed from anyone, yet so true.
    29. A unique amalgam of Pradnya and Karuna is the Dhamma of the Buddha.
    30. Such is the difference between Religion and Dhamma.

~ Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Buddha and his Dhamma

Rally to demand control over Buddha shrine

GAYA: Nearly 1,000 neo-Buddhists, most of them Nagpur-based Ambedkarites, staged organized demonstration outside Gaya Collectorate on Monday afternoon reiterating their long pending demand for total Buddhist control over Mahabodhi temple. The Mahabodhi temple is the most sacred Buddhist shrine where Prince Siddhartha attained enlightenment about 2,600 years back.

Samaj Kranti, a Nagpur-based organization of Ambedkarites, who converted to Buddhism after the change of faith by the main architect of the Indian Constitution, organized the protest. Mukund Khaire led the demonstration having a large contingent of women. Protesters marched on foot from the Gaya railway station to the Collectorate to press for their demand. The protesters also threatened to intensify the agitation if their demands were not met. Earlier,the National Minorities Commission recommended the amendment of the act and transfer of shrine management to an all-Buddhist body, a recommendation not acceptable to Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) and other organizations.

The protesters, who arrived from Nagpur (Maharashtra) by train, demanded amendment in the Temple Act, 1949, to facilitate transfer of shrine management to an all-Buddhist committee. The transfer of management to an all-Buddhist body cannot take place without the amendment of the 1949 Act, as the law stipulates joint management by a nine-member committee comprising five Hindus and four Buddhists, with the post of the committee chairman reserved for the Hindu district magistrate of Gaya.

In case of the Gaya DM being a non-Hindu, the state government is to nominate a Hindu as the Bodhi Temple Management Committee (BTMC) chairman. About four decades back when K M Zubairi was made the Gaya DM, the state government nominated Jugeshwar Prasad Khalish, then an MLC as the committee chairman.

VHP and other organizations oppose the demand as they claim Lord Buddha to be an incarnation of Lord Vishnu and equally revered by the Hindus. Prior to the 1949 legislation, the shrine was under the control of the mahanth (chief) of the Bodh Gaya-based Shaivite math(monastery).

(News: timesofindia.indiatimes.com)

Afghanistan’s ancient jewels finally see the light of day

Mes Aynak contains ruins of several monasteries but sits on a copper mine China aims to exploit, threatening future archaeological excavation. Picture: Jerome Starkey

By Jerome Starkey in Mes Aynak
Published on Saturday 19 November 2011 17:26

THE gold still glistened after a more than 1,000 years underground; the gemstones glinted at their first touch of sunlight, undimmed by a millennium in the dirt.
“It’s a necklace,” said a Polish archaeologist breathless with excitement. “They’ve found a gold necklace!”
As the fine grey sand of Afghanistan’s sun-bleached mountains was gently sieved away, there was treasure in the pan: tiny golden orbs adorned with even smaller gold beads, tulip-shaped pendants no bigger than a fingernail, red gemstones and swirling gold bowls, like acorn lids.
Next to them were two spoons and a brooch made of copper, green from corrosion, and two copper hairpins embellished with gold.
Excavations at Mes Aynak have already unearthed three Buddhist monasteries and an ancient copper mine replete with statues, coins, reliefs and murals – which is more than enough to secure its place as one of the most significant archaeological digs in a generation.
Yet last week’s discovery was the first time since archaeologists started work in 2009 that anyone has found jewellery in the mountains, 35km south of Kabul, and with at least three more monasteries still to be explored, Afghan officials hope the discoveries will elevate Mes Aynak into the archaeological pantheon, alongside Tillya Tepe, home of the Bactrian hoard.
The archaeological remains in Logar province date from the 1st to the 7th centuries; first settled by the Khushan dynasty and eventually abandoned by the Hephtalites, with the advent of Islam to Afghanistan.
“The gold, the wall paintings, the statues all suggest that the inhabitants of the site were quite wealthy,” said Hans Curvers, leading archeologist on site. “Not a surprise when you live in the place were the Khushan empire mines, its main financial resources.”
But the treasure is both a blessing and a burden for the Afghan government, which is desperate to start exploiting its minerals as a source of income.
The archaeological sites sit directly on top of a world class copper deposit which a Chinese state mining company paid $3 billion (£1.9bn) to acquire, in 2008. It was Afghanistan’s largest foreign investment, and allegedly came with a $30m bribe to the then minister of mines.
The Afghan government hopes to earn up to $350m a year in royalties – equivalent to 20 per cent of Kabul’s tax revenue – once the mine is operational, but recently agreed a 12-month delay, to give the archaeologists more time.
“The artefacts are right on top of the copper,” said Nasir Ahmad Durrani, deputy minister of mines. “Unless we remove them we can’t get to the mine.”
The government has also spent $6.5m clearing Soviet-era landmines from the site.
“The landmines and artefacts amounted to a force majeure,” Mr Durrani added. “The original timelines didn’t take into account the realities on the ground … but we believe that by 2014 we will be able to start commercial production.”
Western officials are less sure. The Chinese have improved the road to the mine and built a camp to house their workers but they are yet to start work on the railway or the power station, stipulated in their contract, which they will need to purify the copper and then export it.
“They are playing the long game,” said a senior European official. “They have got their resource and they know that price of copper is not going down.”
Omar Sultan, the deputy minister of culture, said he was confident the archaeologists would excavate the areas in immediate danger before the Chinese “start blowing it up”.
“We are not going to let anybody destroy our culture and I haven’t seen any intention to go and do that from the Chinese or anybody else,” he said.
He hopes to relocate the monasteries, block by block, in a purpose-built museum nearby.
“This was a crossroads of civilisations,” he said. “We have a cultural heritage that doesn’t just belong to Afghanistan. It belongs to all of humanity.”

http://www.scotsman.com/news/international/afghanistan_s_ancient_jewels_finally_see_the_light_of_day_1_1973845

Religion and Dhamma

1. What is Religion?

1. The word "religion" is an indefinite word with no fixed meaning.

2. It is one word with many meanings.

3. This is because religion has passed through many stages. The concept at each stage is called Religion, though the concept at one stage has not had the same meaning which it had at the preceding stage, or is likely to have at the succeeding stage.

4. The conception of religion was never fixed.

5. It has varied from time to time.

6. Because most of the phenomena such as lightning, rain, and floods, the occurrence of which the primitive man could not explain, [were not understood], any weird performance done to control the phenomenon was called magic. Religion therefore came to be identified with magic.

7. Then came the second stage in the evolution of religion. In this stage religion came to be identified with beliefs, rituals, ceremonies, prayers, and sacrifices.

8. But this conception of religion is derivative.

9. The pivotal point in religion starts with the belief that there exists some power which causes these phenomena, which primitive man did not know and could not understand. Magic lost its place at this stage.

10. This power was originally malevolent. But later it was felt that it could also be benevolent.

11. Beliefs, rites, ceremonies, and sacrifices were necessary both to propitiate a benevolent power, and also to conciliate an angry power.

12. Later that power was called God or the Creator.

13. Then came the third stage: that it is this God who created this world and also man.

14. This was followed by the belief that man has a soul, and the soul is eternal and is answerable to God for man's actions in the world.

15. This is, in short, the evolution of the concept of Religion.

16. This is what Religion has come to be and this is what it connotes--belief in God, belief in [a] soul, worship of God, curing of the erring soul, propitiating God by prayers, ceremonies, sacrifices, etc.

2. How Dhamma Differs From Religion

1. What the Buddha calls Dhamma differs fundamentally from what is called Religion.

2. What the Buddha calls Dhamma is analogous to what the European theologians call Religion.

3. But there is no greater affinity between the two. On the other hand, the differences between the two are very great.

4. On this account, some European theologians refuse to recognise the Buddha's Dhamma as Religion.

5. There need be no regrets over this. The loss is theirs. It does no harm to the Buddha's Dhamma. Rather, it shows what is wanting in Religion.

6. Instead of entering into this controversy, it is better to proceed to give an idea of Dhamma, and show how it differs from Religion.

7. Religion, it is said, is personal, and one must keep it to oneself. One must not let it play its part in public life.

8. Contrary to this, Dhamma is social. It is fundamentally and essentially so.

9. Dhamma is righteousness, which means right relations between man and man in all spheres of life.

10. From this it is evident that one man, if he is alone, does not need Dhamma.

11. But when there are two men living in relation to each other, they must find a place for Dhamma whether they like it or not. Neither can escape it.

12. In other words. Society cannot do without Dhamma.

13. Society has to choose one of the three alternatives.

14. Society may choose not to have any Dhamma as an instrument of Government. For Dhamma is nothing if it is not an instrument of Government.

15. This means Society chooses the road to anarchy.

16. Secondly, Society may choose the police--i.e., dictatorship--as an instrument of Government.

17. Thirdly, Society may choose Dhamma, plus the Magistrate wherever people fail to observe the Dhamma.

18. In anarchy and dictatorship liberty is lost.

19. Only in the third [case] liberty survives.

20. Those who want liberty must therefore have Dhamma.

21. Now what is Dhamma? and why is Dhamma necessary? According to the Buddha, Dhamma consists of Prajna and Karuna.

22. What is Prajna? And why Prajna? Prajna is understanding. The Buddha made Prajna one of the two corner-stones of His Dhamma because he did not wish to leave any room for superstition.

23. What is Karuna? And why Karuna? Karuna is love. Because without it, Society can neither live nor grow; that is why the Buddha made it the second corner-stone of His Dhamma.

24. Such is the definition of the Buddha's Dhamma.

25. How different is this definition of Dhamma from that of Religion.

26. So ancient, yet so modern, is the definition of Dhamma given by the Buddha.

27. So aboriginal, yet so original.

28. Not borrowed from anyone, yet so true.

29. A unique amalgam of Pradnya and Karuna is the Dhamma of the Buddha.

30. Such is the difference between Religion and Dhamma.

3. The Purpose of Religion and the Purpose of Dhamma

1. What is the purpose of Religion? What is the purpose of Dhamma? Are they one and the same? Or are they different

2. The answer to these questions are to be found in two dialogues--one between the Buddha and Sunakkhatta, and the other between the Buddha and the Brahmin Potthapada.

3. The Exalted One was once staying among the Mallas, at Anupiya, one of their towns.

4. Now the Exalted One ,having robed himself in the early morning, put on his cloak and took his bowl and entered the town for alms.

5. On the way, he thought it was too early to go for alms. Therefore he went to the pleasance where Bhaggava the wanderer dwelt, and called on him.

6. On seeing the Blessed One Bhaggava got up, saluted him, and said, "May it please you, sire, to be seated; here is a seat made ready for you."

7. The Exalted One sat down thereon, and Bhaggava, taking a certain low stool sat down beside him. So seated, Bhaggava, the wanderer, spake thus to the Exalted One :

8 "Some days ago, Lord, a good many days ago, Sunakkhatta of the Licchavis called on me and spake thus: 'I have now given up the Exalted One, Bhaggava. I am remaining no longer under him (as my teacher).' Is the fact really so, just as he said?"

9. "It is just so, Bhaggava, as Sunakkhatta of the Licchavis said," replied the Blessed One.

10. "Some days ago, Bhaggava, a good many days ago, Sunakkhatta, the Licchavi, came to call on me, and spake thus: 'Sir, I now give up the Exalted One. I will henceforth remain no longer under him (as my teacher).' When he told me this, I said to him: 'But now, Sunakkhatta, have I ever said to you, Come, Sunakkhatta, live under me (as my pupil)?'

11. "'No sir, you have not.'

12. "Or have you ever said to me: 'Sir, I would fain dwell under the Exalted One (as my teacher)?'

13. "'No sir, I have not.'

14. "Then I asked him 'If I said not the one, and you said not the other, what are you and what am I, that you talk of giving up? See, foolish one, in how far the fault here is your own.'

15. "'Well, but, sir, the Exalted One works me no mystic wonders surpassing the power of ordinary men.'

16. "Why now, Sunakkhatta, have I ever said to you: 'Come, take me as your teacher, Sunakkhatta, and I will work for you mystic wonders surpassing the power of ordinary men?'

17. "'You have not, sir.'

18. "Or have you ever said to me: 'Sir, I would fain take the Exalted One as my teacher, for he will work for me mystic wonders beyond the powers of ordinary men?'

19. "'I have not, sir.'

20. "'But if I said not the one, and you said not the other, what are you and what am I, foolish man, that you talk of giving up? What think you, Sunakkhatta? Whether mystic wonders beyond the power of ordinary man are wrought, or whether they are not, is the object for which I teach the Dhamma: that it leads to the thorough, destruction of ill for the doer thereof?'

21. '"Whether, sir, they are so wrought or not, that is indeed the object for which the Dhamma is taught by the Exalted One.'

22. "'If then, Sunakkhatta, it matters not to that object whether mystic wonders are wrought or not, of what use to you would be the working of them? See, foolish one, in how far the fault here is your own.'

23. "'But, sir, the Exalted One does not reveal to me the beginning of things.'

24. "Why now, Sunakkhatta, have I ever said to you: 'Come, Sunakkhatta, be my. disciple and I will reveal to you the beginning of things?'

25. "'Sir, you have not.'

26. "Or have you ever said to me: 'I will become the Exalted One's pupil, for he will reveal to me the beginning of things?'

27. "'Sir, I have not.'

28. "'But if I have not said the one and you have not said the other, what are you and what am I, foolish man, that you talk of giving up on that account? What think you, Sunakkhatta? Whether the beginning of things be revealed, or whether it be not, is the object for which I teach the Dhamma, that it leads to the thorough destruction of ill for the doer thereof?

29. "'Whether, sir, they are revealed or not, that is indeed the object for which the Dhamma is taught by the Exalted One.'

30. "'If then, Sunakkhatta, it matters not to that object whether the beginning of things be revealed, or whether it be not, of what use to you would it be to have the beginning of things revealed?'"

31. This illustrates that Religion is concerned with revealing the beginning of things and Dhamma is not.

3 part 2 -- The other differences between Religion and Dhamma are brought out in the discussion between the Blessed One and Potthapada.

1. The Blessed One was once staying at Shravasti in Anathapindika's pleasance of the Jeta's wood. Now at that time Potthapada, the wandering mendicant, was dwelling in the hall put up in Queen Mallika's park for a debate on general systems of philosophical opinion.

2. There was with him a great following of mendicants; to wit, three hundred. A dialogue took place between the Blessed Lord and Potthapada. Potthapada asked:

3. "Then, sir, if that be so, tell me at least, is the world eternal? Is this alone the truth, and any other view mere folly?'"

4. "That, Potthapada, is a matter on which I have expressed no opinion," replied the Blessed Lord.

5. Then, in the same terms, Potthapada asked each of the following questions:


(i) 'Is the world not eternal?'

(ii) 'Is the world finite?'

(iii) 'Is the world infinite?'

(iv) 'Is the soul the same as the body?'

(v) 'Is the soul one thing, and the body another?'

(vi) 'Does one who has gained the truth live again after death?'

(vii) 'Does he not live again after death?'

(viii) 'Does he both live again and not live again, after death?'

(ix) 'Does he neither live again, nor not live again, after death?'

6. And to each questions the Exalted One made the same reply:--

7. "That too, Potthapada, is a matter on which I have expressed no opinion."

8. "But why has the Exalted One expressed no opinion on that?"

9. "Because this question is not calculated to profit, it is not concerned with the Dhamma, it does not redound even to the elements of right conduct, nor to detachment, nor to purification from lusts, nor to quietude, nor to tranquillisation of heart, nor to real knowledge, nor to the insight (of the higher stages of the Path), nor to Nirvana. Therefore is it that I express no opinion upon it. "

10. "Then what is it that the Exalted One has determined?"

11. "I have expounded, Potthapada, what Dukkha is; I have expounded what is the origin of Dukkha; I have expounded what is the cessation of Dukkha; I have expounded what is the method by which one may reach the cessation of Dukkha."

12. "And why has the Exalted One put forth a statement as to that?"

13. "Because that question, Potthapada, is calculated to profit, is concerned with the Dhamma, redounds to the beginnings of right conduct, to detachment, to purification from lusts, to quietude, to tranquillisation of heart, to real knowledge, to the insight of the higher stages of the Path, and to Nirvana. Therefore is it, Potthapada, that I have put forward a statement as to that."

14. In this dialogue it is clearly put forth what is the subject matter of Religion, and what is not the subject matter of Dhamma. The two are poles apart

15. The purpose of Religion is to explain the origin of the world. The purpose of Dhamma is to reconstruct the world.

4. Morality and Religion

1. What is the place of morality in Religion?

2. As a matter of truth, morality has no place in Religion.

3. The content of religion consists of God, soul, prayers, worship, rituals, ceremonies, and sacrifices.

4. Morality comes in only wherein man comes in relation to man.

5. Morality comes into religion as a side wind, to maintain peace and order.

6. Religion is a triangular piece.

7. Be good to your neighbour, because you are both children of God.

8. That is the argument of religion.

9. Every religion preaches morality, but morality is not the root of religion.

10. It is a wagon attached to it. It is attached and detached as the occasion requires.

11. The action of morality in the functioning of religion is therefore casual and occasional.

12. Morality in religion is therefore not effective.

5. Dhamma and Morality

1. What is the place of morality in Dhamma?

2. The simple answer is, Morality is Dhamma and Dhamma is Morality.

3. In other words, in Dhamma morality takes the place of God, although there is no God in Dhamma.

4. In Dhamma there is no place for prayers, pilgrimages, rituals, ceremonies, or sacrifices.

5. Morality is the essence of Dhamma. Without it there is no Dhamma.

6. Morality in Dhamma arises from the direct necessity for man to love man.

7. It does not require the sanction of God. It is not to please God that man has to be moral. It is for his own good that man has to love man.

6. Mere Morality is not Enough: it must be Sacred and Universal

1. When is a thing sacred? Why is a thing sacred?

2. In every human society, primitive or advanced, there are some things or beliefs which it regards as sacred, and the rest [it regards] as profane.

3. When a thing or belief has reached the stage of being sacred (pavitra), it means that it cannot be violated. Indeed it cannot be touched. It is taboo.

4. Contrary to this, a thing or a belief which is profane (apavitra), i.e., outside the field of the sacred, may be violated. It means one can act contrary to it, without feeling any fear or qualms of conscience.

5. The sacred is something holy. To transgress it is a sacrilege.

6. Why is a thing made sacred? To confine the scope of the question to the matter in hand, why morality should [=should morality] have been made sacred?

7. Three factors seem to have played their part in making morality sacred.

8. The first factor is the social need for protecting the best.

9. The background of this question lies imbedded in what is called the struggle of existence and the survival of the fittest.

10. This arises out of the theory of evolution. It is common knowledge that evolution takes place through a struggle for existence, because the means of food supply in early times were so limited.

11. The struggle is bitter. Nature is said to be red in claw and tooth.

12. In this struggle, which is bitter and bloody, only the fittest survive.

13. Such is the original state of society.

14. In the course of [the] ancient past someone must have raised the question, is the fittest (the strongest) the best? Would not the weakest, if protected, be ultimately the best for advancing the ends and aims of society?

15. The then prevailing state of society seems to have given an answer in the affirmative.

16. Then comes, the question what is the way to protect the weak?

17. Nothing less than to impose some restraints upon the fittest.

18. In this lies the origin and necessity for morality.

19. This morality had to be sacred, because it was imposed originally on the fittest, i.e., the strongest.

20. This has very serious consequences.

21. First, does morality in becoming social become anti-social?

22. It is not that there is no morality among thieves. There is morality among businessmen. There is morality among fellow castemen and there is also morality among a gang of robbers.

23. But this morality is marked by isolation and exclusiveness. It is a morality to protect "group interest." It is therefore anti-social.

24. It is the isolation and exclusiveness of this kind of morality which throws its anti-social spirit in[to] relief.

25. The same is true where a group observes morality because it has interests of its own to protect.

26. The results of this group organisation of society are far-reaching.

27. If society continues to consist of anti-social groups, society will remain a disorganised and a factional society.

28. The danger of a disorganised and factional state of society is that it sets up a number of different models and standards.

29. In the absence of common models and common standards, society cannot be a harmonious whole,

30. With such different models and standards, it is impossible for the individual to attain consistency of mind.

31. A society which rests upon the supremacy of one group over another, irrespective of its rational or proportionate claims, inevitably leads to conflict.

32. The only way to put a stop to conflict is to have common rules of morality which are sacred to all.

33. There is the third factor which requires morality to be made sacred and universal. It is to safeguard the growth of the individual.

34. Under the struggle for existence or under group rule the interests of the individuals are not safe.

35. The group set-up prevents an individual from acquiring consistency of mind, which is possible only when society has common ideals, common models. His thoughts are led astray, and this creates a mind whose seeing unity is forced and distorted.

36. Secondly, the group set-up leads to discrimination and denial of justice.

37. The group set-up leads to stratification of classes. Those who are masters remain masters, and those who are born in slavery remain slaves. Owners remain owners, and workers remain workers. The privileged remain privileged, and the serfs remain serfs.

38. This means that there can be liberty for some, but not for all. This means that there can be equality for a few, but none for the majority.

39. What is the remedy? The only remedy lies in making fraternity universally effective.

40. What is fraternity? It is nothing but another name for [the] brotherhood of men--which is another name for morality.

41. This is why the Buddha preached that Dhamma is morality; and as Dhamma is sacred, so is morality.

___

~ Dr. B. R . Ambedkar, Indian Scholar and Buddhist revivalist 

(extracted from his famous book 'The Buddha and his Dhamma')

Buddhist way of Life

Wisdom

Mere Morality is Not Enough: It Must Be Sacred and Universal

When is a thing sacred? Why is a thing sacred? In every human society, primitive or advanced, there are some things or beliefs which it regards as sacred, and the rest [it regards] as profane. When a thing or belief has reached the stage of being sacred (pavitra), it means that it cannot be violated. Indeed it cannot be touched. It is taboo. Contrary to this, a thing or a belief which is profane (apavitra), i.e., outside the field of the sacred, may be violated. It means one can act contrary to it, without feeling any fear or qualms of conscience. The sacred is something holy. To transgress it is a sacrilege. Why a thing is made sacred? To confine the scope of the question to the matter in hand, why morality should [=should morality] have been made sacred? Three factors seem to have played their part in making morality sacred.

The first factor is the social need for protecting the best. The background of this question lies imbedded in what is called the struggle of existence and the survival of the fittest. This arises out of the theory of evolution. It is common knowledge that evolution takes place through a struggle for existence, because the means of food supply in early times were so limited. The struggle is bitter. Nature is said to be red in claw and tooth. In this struggle, which is bitter and bloody, only the fittest survive. Such is the original state of society. In the course of [the] ancient past someone must have raised the question, is the fittest (the strongest) the best? Would not the weakest, if protected, be ultimately the best for advancing the ends and aims of society? The then prevailing state of society seems to have given an answer in the affirmative. Then comes, the question what is the way to protect the weak? Nothing less than to impose some restraints upon the fittest. In this lies the origin and necessity for morality. This morality had to be sacred, because it was imposed originally on the fittest, i.e., the strongest. This has very serious consequences.

First, does morality in becoming social become anti-social? It is not that there is no morality among thieves. There is morality among businessmen. There is morality among fellow caste men and there is also morality among a gang of robbers. But this morality is marked by isolation and exclusiveness. It is a morality to protect "group interest." It is therefore anti-social. It is the isolation and exclusiveness of this kind of morality which throws its anti-social spirit in [to] relief. The same is true where a group observes morality because it has interests of its own to protect. The results of this group organisation of society are far-reaching.

If society continues to consist of anti-social groups, society will remain a disorganised and a factional society. The danger of a disorganised and factional state of society is that it sets up a number of different models and standards. In the absence of common models and common standards, society cannot be a harmonious whole, with such different models and standards, it is impossible for the individual to attain consistency of mind. A society which rests upon the supremacy of one group over another, irrespective of its rational or proportionate claims, inevitably leads to conflict. The only way to put a stop to conflict is to have common rules of morality which are sacred to all.

There is the third factor which requires morality to be made sacred and universal. It is to safeguard the growth of the individual. Under the struggle for existence or under group rule the interests of the individuals are not safe. The group set-up prevents an individual from acquiring consistency of mind, which is possible only when society has common ideals, common models. His thoughts are led astray, and this creates a mind whose seeing unity is forced and distorted. Secondly, the group set-up leads to discrimination and denial of justice. The group set-up leads to stratification of classes. Those who are masters remain masters, and those who are born in slavery remain slaves. Owners remain owners, and workers remain workers. The privileged remain privileged, and the serfs remain serfs. This means that there can be liberty for some, but not for all. This means that there can be equality for a few, but none for the majority. What is the remedy? The only remedy lies in making fraternity universally effective. What is fraternity? It is nothing but another name for [the] brotherhood of men--which is another name for morality. This is why the Buddha preached that Dhamma is morality; and as Dhamma is sacred, so is morality.

— B.R. Ambedkar, 
extract from the 'Buddha and His Dhamma', 1957

Lord Ayyappa is Buddhist

Lord Ayyappa is Buddhist

In addition to Temple at Puri, Pandharpur, and Badrinath in three different corners of India, even the extreme south, viz. Kerala, was also under the influence of Buddhism and among others, the famous deity Lord Ayyappa was originally a Buddhist shrine.
 

Buddhism prospered in ancient Kerala
K.R. Vaidyanathan observes:
"Like Jainism, Buddhism also held sway in ancient Kerala during the reign of Asoka in the 3rd century B.C. Coming by sea, Buddhism was popular in coastal districts, Karumati, Mavelikkara, Bharanikkavu, Pallikkal, Karunagappalli, Idappalli, Dharmapattabnam, Matayi and Pallikkunny being its chief centers... Many prominent Hindu Temples of today like the Vadakkunnathan temple, Trichur and the Kurumga Bhagwati Temple, Kondugallur, and even the famous Ayyappa shrine atop Sabarimala are believed to have been at one time Buddhist shrines. ... While Jainism did hardly leave any impress on Kerala society, Buddhism was absorbed in Hinduism in respect of some of its ceremonies and forms of worship. The images, processions and utsavam, etc. associated with popular worship in present day Hindu temples in Kerala are said to be a legacy of Buddhism. Even the chakiyar kuttu conducted in temples is said to be an adaptation of the Buddhist monk's religious expositions." [Vaidyanathan: 1982: 4]

Ayyappa is Dharma Sasta

Coming specifically to Lord Ayyappa, it would be interesting to know that Lord Ayyappa is also generally, and popularly known as Dharma Sasta. Vaidyanathan observes:

"There are temples dedicated to Dharma Sasta as Ayyappa is generally known all over the State of Kerala - and now of course, in other states also. Even in temples dedicated to other deities in Kerala there will be generally a Sasta shrine. ..." [Vaidyanathan: 1982: 70]

As is well known that word 'Dharma' is deeply rooted in Buddhist literature. Eg. 'sadhamma' as meaning Teachings of Buddha. Sasta is a well known epithet applied to Buddha. Even today Buddha is referred to as Sasta in daily prayer of Buddhists, e.g. ' Sattha dev manussanam '. Amarkosha mentions this as one of the names of Buddha. It appears that though the nature of deity changed, the name still persists. The present nature of the Lord is considered to be a son of Siva on Vishnu. Vaidyanathan observes:

"The story is that, Siva was captivated by the charms of Mohini in which form Vishnu appeared at the time of churning of the Ocean of Milk in order to entice the asuras so that the devas could divide the nectar among themselves. Siva succumbed to the beauty of Mohini and Sasta is believed to have been born out of the union." [Vaidyanathan: 1982: 71]

Caste barriers are weak

Another notable feature is the caste barriers are comparatively weak in this temple, which is a common feature of all those shrines which were previously of Buddhist faith. This became necessary for the Brahmins to concede to, so that masses could be wooed away from Buddhism. Vaidyanathan observes:

"...the temple doors of Sabarimala are open to all, irrespective of caste, creed, religion and social status. Here the high and low, the rich and poor, meet on equal terms; all are alike - Ayyappas as the devotees are called after the deity itself." [Vaidyanathan: 1982: 75]

The pilgrimage to Sabari, in itself thought to be an act of tremendous virtue by the Ayyappas, involves a lot of austerities to be followed by them. It is well known that there are 18 steps that are to be climbed only by those who observe these austerities. But it is little known that these austerities are similar to the vows, known as ashta-shilas, taken by Buddhists. This point should also demonstrate how the traditions persist though the labels change.

Early Hindu literature has no mention of Ayyappa

About references in ancient literature, T.A.Gopinath Rao observes: [Gopinath Rao: 1985: 486]

"This deity which is very peculiar to the Dravida country does not appear to have been known to the region north of Godavari. In no early Sanskrit work is the deity mentioned. Even the dictionaries do not record this name and give its origin..."

In the Vishnu Purana, we hear about Mohini, but
"...It is in the Shri Bhagwata that we learn for the first time that Hara fell in love with Vishnu in his form of Mohini. From the union between Hara and Hari, Arya, Shasta or Hariharputra is said to have been born..."

"...The Suprabhedagama very distinctly mentions that Sasta was distributing the ?amrita? among the gods when it was churned from the milk ocean, by the union with her of Hara..."

Ayyappa is a Deity of lower castes

Shri Rao further observes:
"...That this deity is peculiarly Dravidian and has been taken into fold of the Aryan pantheon at a later period goes without contradiction. At present Hariharputra is treated in the Tamil country as a village deity and is mostly worshiped by the lower classes and the puja in the temple of Hariharputra of Ayyanar (or Ayyanarappan) is performed by a Shudra. The Padmasamhita states that the puja in the temple of Arya should be performed by the Parashava; We know from other sources that a Parashava is an anuloma born of a Brahmana father and a Shudra mother. But somehow Ayyanar, like the more tamasic form of Devi, such as Kali, which are worshiped by lower classes in Tamil country, is made puja to by the Brahmanas in Malabar."

Ayyappa was Buddhist

About the origin of the name Shasta, Shri Rao has to say:
"This deity is called Shasta because he is able to control and rule over the whole world; etymologically therefore, the word means a ruler of a country; and is sometimes applied to teachers and fathers. The Amarkosha applies the name to Buddha also. The Tamil Nighantus call him by the additional names Satavahana, the rider of the white elephant, kari, the wielder of the weapon known as sendu, the consort of purana and pushkala, the protector of Dharma and Yogi; they also state that the vehicle of Sasta is the elephant and the crest of his banner a cock. The names rider of the white elephant, Yogi, protector of Dharma coupled with the significance of Buddha applied to Sasta in the Amarkosha incline one to conclude that Buddha as conceived and worshiped in the Tamil country was ultimately included in the Hindu pantheon and a Puranic story invented for his origin at a later period of the history of Hindu Iconology..." [Gopinath Rao: 1985: 487]

Ayyappa has weapons of Bodhisattva
 

Rao gives description of image as per texts, The Amshumabhedagama, Suprabhedegama and Karanangama, notable among the description is that Lord is seated on a pitha..." with his left leg hanging down the seat and the right one folded and rested upon the seat vertically. On the knee of this latter leg should rest the elbow of the stretched left arm. In the right hand there should be a vajradanda, which is crooked stick (note the vajra a characteristic weapon of the Boudha Bodhisattva)..."
Buddha is worshipped in many forms
Lastly we may quote the opinions of Thiru. N. Vanamalai
"Though Buddhism disappeared from Tamilnadu, it became Tamil by integrating into Tamil. Buddha had become reincarnation of Tirumal. The worship of Sathanar, Ayyanar, Dharma Raja and Bodhi Raj are old Buddha worship." [Arachi: 1969: 160]


By Dr K. Jamanadas

The Buddha's First Sermon

The Conversion of the Parivrajakas  

1. Arrival at Sarnath
    1. Having decided to preach his doctrine, the Buddha asked himself "To whom shall I first teach the doctrine?" The thought [came to him] of Alara Kalam, whom the Buddha adored as the learned, wise, intelligent, and of little impurity; "What if I first teach him the doctrine?" But he was told that Alara Kalam was dead.
    2. Then thought he of preaching it to Uddaka Ramputta. But he too was dead.
    3. Then he thought of the five old companions of his who were with him at Niranjana when he was practising austerities, and who had left him in anger on his abandonment of austerities.
    4. "They did much for me, attended me and looked after me; what if I first teach the doctrine to them?" said he to himself.
    5. He asked for their whereabouts. Having learnt that they were dwelling at Sarnath, in the deer park of Isipatana, he left in search of them.
    6. The five, seeing him coming, decided among themselves not to welcome him. Said one of them, "This, friends, is the ascetic Gautama coming, who has abandoned austerities and has turned to [a] life of abundance and luxury. He has committed a sin. We must not therefore greet him, nor rise in respect, nor take his bowl and robe. We will only set apart a seat for him. If he wishes, he may sit down." And they all agreed.
    7. But when the Buddha approached, the five Parivrajakas were not able to abide by their decision; so greatly impressed were they by his personality that they all rose in their seats. One took his bowl, one took his robe, and one prepared a seat, and one brought water to wash his feet.
    8. It was really a great welcome to an unwelcome guest.
    9. Thus those who intended to scoff remained to pray.

2. The Buddha's First Sermon
    1. After [the] exchange of greetings, the five Parivrajakas asked the Buddha whether he still believed in asceticism. The Buddha replied in the negative.
    2. He said there were two extremes, a life of pleasure and a life of self-mortification.
    3. One says let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we die. The other says, kill all vasanas (desires) because they bring rebirth. He rejected both as unbecoming to man.
    4. He was a believer in the Madhyama Marga (Majjhima Patipada), the middle path, which is neither the path of pleasure nor the path of self-mortification.
    5. "Answer me this," he said to the Parivrajakas. "So long as your self remains active and continues to lust after either worldly or heavenly pleasures, is not all mortification vain?" And they answered, "It is as thou sayest."
    6. "How can ye be free from self by leading a wretched life of self-mortification, if ye do not thereby succeed in quenching the fires of lust?" And they replied, "It is as thou sayest."
    7. "Only when the self in ye has been conquered  [so] that ye are free from lust; ye will then not desire worldly pleasures, and the satisfaction of your natural wants will not defile ye. Let ye eat and drink according to the needs of your body.
    8. "Sensuality of all kinds is enervating. The sensual man is a slave of his passion. All pleasure-seeking is degrading and vulgar. But I say unto you that to satisfy the needs of life is not an evil: to keep the body in good health is a duty, or otherwise you shall not be able to keep your mind strong and clear and have the lamp of wisdom burning.
    9. "Know ye, O Parivrajakas, that there are these two extremes which man ought not to follow--the habitual indulgence on the one hand, of those things whose attraction depends upon the passions, and especially of sensuality--a low and pagan way of seeking satisfaction, unworthy, unprofitable, and the habitual practice thereof; and on the other hand, of asceticism or self-mortification, which is painful, unworthy, and unprofitable.
    10. "There is a middle path which avoids both these extremes. Know ye, that, this is the path which I preach."
    11. The five Parivrajakas listened to him with attention. Not knowing what to say in reply to the Buddha's middle path, they asked him what he was [=had been] doing after they had left him. Then the Buddha told them how he left for Gaya, how he sat in contemplation under the Banyan Tree, and how after four weeks of contemplation he obtained enlightenment, as a result of which he was able to discover a new path of life.
    12. On hearing this, the Parivrajakas became extremely impatient to know what the path was, and requested the Buddha to expound it to them.
    13. The Buddha agreed.
    14. He began by saying that his path which is his Dhamma (religion) had nothing to do with God and [the] Soul. His Dhamma had nothing to do with life after death. Nor has his Dhamma any concern with rituals and ceremonies.
    15. The centre of his Dhamma is man, and the relation of man to man in his life on earth.
    16. This, he said, was his first postulate.
    17. His second postulate was that men are living in sorrow, in misery and poverty. The world is full of suffering and that [discovering] how to remove this suffering from the world is the only purpose of Dhamma. Nothing else is Dhamma.
    18. The recognition of the existence of suffering, and to show the way to remove suffering, is the foundation and basis of his Dhamma.
    19. This can be the only foundation and justification for Dhamma. A religion which fails to recognise this is no religion at all.
    20. "Verily, Parivrajakas! whatsoever recluses or Brahmins (i.e., preachers of religion) understand not, as it really is, that the misery in the world and the escape therefrom, is the main problem of Dhamma--such recluses and Brahmins in my opinion are not to be regarded as recluses and Brahmin ; nor have those worthies come to know fully of themselves what     in this very life is the real meaning of Dhamma."
    21. The Parivrajakas then asked him, "If the foundation of your Dhamma is the recognition of the existence of suffering and the removal of suffering, tell us, how does your Dhamma remove suffering!"
    22. The Buddha then told them that according to his Dhamma if every person followed (1) the Path of Purity; (2) the Path of Righteousness; and (3) the Path of Virtue, it would bring about the end of all suffering.
    23. And he added that he had discovered such a Dhamma.

3. The Buddha's First Sermon—(contd.) The Path of Purity
    1. The Parivrajakas then asked the Buddha to explain to them his Dhamma.
    2. And the Buddha was pleased to do so.
    3. He addressed them first on the Path of Purity.
    4. "The Path of Purity," he told the Parivrajakas, "teaches that a person who wishes to be good must recognise some principles as principles of life.
    5. "According to my Path of Purity, the principles of life recognised by it are: Not to injure or kill; Not to steal or appropriate to oneself anything which belongs to another; Not to speak untruth; Not to indulge in lust; Not to indulge in intoxicating drinks.
    6. "The recognition of these principles, I say, is most essential for every man. For every man must have a standard by which to judge whatever he does. And these principles, according to my teachings, constitute the standard.
    7. "There are everywhere people who are patit (fallen). But there are two classes of the patit: the patit who has a standard, and a patit who has no standard.
    8. "The patit who has no standard does not know that he has fallen. Consequently he always remains fallen. On the other hand, a patit who has a standard tries to rise from his fallen state. Why? The answer is, because he knows that he has fallen.
    9. "This is the difference between having a standard, and having no standard, for regulating a man's life. What matters is not so much the fall of the man, but the absence of any standard.
    10. "You may ask, ye Parivrajakas! Why are these principles worthy of recognition as a standard of life?
    11. "The answer to this question you will find for yourselves, if you ask: "Are these principles good for the individual?" also if you ask: "Do they promote social good?"
    12. "If your answers to these questions are in the affirmative, then it follows that the principles of my Path of Purity are worthy of recognition as forming a true standard of life."

4. The Buddha's First Sermon (cont'd)—Ashtanga Marga or the Path of Righteousness
    1. The Buddha next addressed the Parivrajakas on the Ashtangamarga. He said that there are eight constituents in the Ashtangamarga.
    2. He began his discourse with the exposition of Samma Ditti (Right Views), the first and foremost element in the Ashtangmarga,
    3. "To realise the importance of Samma Ditti," the Buddha said to the Parivrajakas:
    4. "O, ye Parivrajakas, you must realise that the world is a dungeon, and man is a prisoner in the dungeon.
    5. "This dungeon is full of darkness. So dark is it that scarce anything at all can rightly be seen by the prisoner. The prisoner cannot see that he is a prisoner.
    6. "Indeed, man has not only become blind by living too long in the darkness, but he very much doubts if any such strange thing as light is said to be, can ever exist at all.
    7. "Mind is the only instrument through which light can come to man.
    8. "But the mind of these dungeon-dwellers is by no means a perfect instrument for the purpose.
    9. "It lets through only a little light, just enough to show to those with sight that there is such a thing as darkness.
    10.  Thus defective in its nature, such understanding as this is.
    11. "But know ye, Parivrajakas! the case of the prisoner is not as hopeless as it appears.
    12. "For there is in man a thing called will. When the appropriate motives arise, the will can be awakened and set in motion.
    13. "With the coming of just enough light to see in what directions to guide the motions of the will, man may so guide them that they shall lead to liberty.
    14. "Thus though man is bound, yet he may be free; he may at any moment begin to take the first steps that will ultimately bring him to freedom.
    15. "This is because it is possible to train the mind in whatever directions one chooses. It is mind that makes us to be prisoners in the house of life, and it is mind that keeps us so.
    16. "But what mind has done, that mind can undo. If it has brought man to thraldom, it can also, when rightly directed, bring him to liberty.
    17. "This is what Samma Ditti can do."
    18. "What is the end of Samma Ditti?" asked the Parivrajakas. "The end of Samma Ditti," replied the Buddha, "is the destruction of Avijja (Nescience). It is opposed to Miccha Ditti.
    19. "And Avijja means the failure to understand the noble truths, of the existence of suffering and the removal of suffering.
    20. "Samma Ditti requires [the] giving up of belief in the efficacy of rites and ceremonies, to have disbelief in the sanctity of the Shastras.
    21. "Samma Ditti requires the abandonment of superstition and supernaturalism.
    22. "Samma Ditti requires the abandonment of all doctrines which are mere speculations without any basis in fact or experience.
    23. "Samma Ditti requires [a] free mind and free thought.
    24. "Every man has aims, aspirations, and ambitions. Samma Sankappo teaches that such aims, aspirations, and ambitions shall be noble and praiseworthy and not ignoble and unworthy.
    25. "Samma Vacca (Right Speech) teaches:

(1) that one should speak only that which is true;
(2) that one should not speak what is false;
(3) that one should not speak evil of others;
(4) that one should refrain from slander;
(5) that one should not use angry and abusive language towards any fellow man;
(6) that one should speak kindly and courteously to all;
(7) that one should not indulge in pointless, foolish talk, but let his speech be sensible and to the purpose.

    26. "The observance of Right Speech, as I have explained, is not to be the result of fear or favour. It is not to have the slightest reference to what any superior being may think of his action, or to any loss which Right Speech may involve.
    27. "The norm for Right Speech is not the order of the superior or the personal benefit to the individual.
    28. "Samma Kamanto teaches right behaviour. It teaches that every action should be founded on respect for the feelings and rights of others.
    29. "What is the norm for Samma Kamanto? The norm is that course of conduct which is most in harmony with the fundamental laws of existence.
    30. "When his [=one's] actions are in harmony with these laws, they may be taken to be in accord with Samma Kamanto.
    31. "Every individual has to earn his livelihood. But there are ways and ways of earning one's livelihood. Some are bad; some are good. Bad ways are those which cause injury or injustice to others. Good ways are those by which the individual earns his livelihood without causing injury or injustice to others. This is Samma Ajivo.
    32. "Samma Vyayamo (Right Endeavour) is primary endeavour to remove Avijja; to reach the door that leads out of this painful prison house, to swing it open.
    33. "Right endeavour has four purposes.
    34. "One is to prevent states of mind which are in conflict with the Ashtangamarga.
    35. "Second is to suppress such states of mind which may already have arisen.
    36. "Third is to bring into existence states of mind which will help a man to fulfil the requirements of the Ashtangamarga.
    37. "Fourth is to promote the further growth and increase of such states of mind as already may have arisen.
    38. "Samma Satti calls for mindfulness and thoughtfulness. It means constant wakefulness of the mind. Watch and ward by the mind over the evil passions is another name for Samma Satti.
    39. "There are, ye Parivrajakas, five fetters or hindrances which come in the way of a person trying to achieve Samma Ditti, Samma Sankappo, Samma Vacca, Samma Kamanto, Samma Ajeevo, Samma Vyayamo and Samma Satti.
    40. "These five hindrances are covetousness, ill-will, sloth and torpor, doubt, and indecision. It is, therefore, necessary to overcome these hindrances, which are really fetters, and the means to overcome them is through Samadhi. But know ye, Parivrajakas, Samma Samadhi is not the same as Samadhi. It is quite different.
    41. "Samadhi is mere concentration. No doubt it leads to Dhyanic states which are self-induced, holding the five hindrances in suspense.
    42. "But these Dhyana states are temporary. Consequently the suspension of the hindrances is also temporary. What is necessary is a permanent turn to the mind. Such a permanent turn can be achieved only by Samma Samadhi.
    43. "Mere Samadhi is negative, inasmuch as it leads to temporary suspension of the hindrances. In it there is no training to the mind. Samma Samadhi is positive. It trains the mind to concentrate and to think of some Kusala Kamma (Good Deeds and Thoughts) during concentration, and thereby eliminate the tendency of the mind to be drawn towards Akusala Kamma (Bad Deeds and Bad Thoughts) arising from the hindrances.
    44. "Samma Samadhi gives a habit to the mind to think of good, and always to think of good. Samma Samadhi gives the mind the necessary motive power to do good."
5. The Buddha's First Sermon (cont'd)—The Path of Virtue
    1. The Buddha then explained to the Parivrajakas the Path of Virtue.
    2. He told them that the path of virtue meant the observance of the virtues called: (1) Sila; (2) Dana; (3) Uppekha; (4) Nekkhama; (5) Virya; (6) Khanti; (7) Succa; (8) Adhithana; (9) Karuna; and (10) Maitri.
    3. The Parivrajakas asked the Buddha to tell them what these virtues meant.
    4. The Buddha then proceeded to satisfy their desire.
    5. "Sila is moral temperament, the disposition not to do evil and the disposition to do good; to be ashamed of doing wrong. To avoid to do [=doing] evil for fear of punishment is Sila. Sila means fear of doing wrong.
    6. "Nekkhama is renunciation of the pleasures of the world.
    7. "Dana means the giving of one's possessions, blood and limbs, and even one's life, for the good of others, without expecting anything in return.
    8. "Virya is right endeavour. It is doing with all your might whatever you have undertaken to do, with never a thought of turning back, whatever you have undertaken to do.
    9. "Khanti is forbearance. Not to meet hatred by hatred is the essence of it. For hatred is not appeased by hatred. It is appeased only by forbearance.
    10. "Succa is truth. A person must never tell a lie. His speech must be truth and nothing but truth.
    11. "Adhithana is resolute determination to reach the goal.
    12. "Karuna is loving kindness to human beings.
    13. "Maitri is extending fellow feeling to all beings, not only to one who is a friend, but also to one who is a foe; not only to man, but to all living beings.
    14. "Upekka is detachment as distinguished from indifference. It is a state of mind where there is neither like nor dislike. Remaining unmoved by the result, and yet engaged in the pursuit of it.
    15. "These virtues one must practice to his utmost capacity. That is why they are called Paramitas (States of Perfection).

6. The Buddha's First Sermon (concluded)
    1. Having explained His Dhamma and what it involved, the Buddha then asked the Parivrajakas:
    2. "Is not personal purity the foundation of good in the world?" And they answered, "It is as thou sayest."
    3. And he continued, "Is not personal purity undermined by covetousness, passion, ignorance, the destruction of life, theft, adultery, and lying? Is it not necessary for personal purity to build up sufficient strength of character so that these evils should be kept under control? How can a man be the instrument of good if he has no personal purity in him?" And they replied, "It is as thou sayest."
    4. "Again, why do men not mind enslaving or dominating others? Why do men not mind making the lives of others unhappy? Is it not because men are not righteous in their conduct towards one another?" And they answered in the affirmative.
    5. "Will not the practice of the Ashtanga Marga, the path of right views, right aims, right speech, right livelihood, right means, right mindfulness, right perseverance, and right contemplation, in short, the Path of Righteousness, if followed by every one, remove all injustice and inhumanity that man does to man?" And they said, "Yes."
    6. Turning to the path of virtue, he asked, "Is not Dana necessary to remove the suffering of the needy and the poor, and to promote general good? Is not Karuna necessary, to be drawn to the relief of poverty and suffering wherever it exists? Is not Nekkamma necessary to selfless work? Is not Uppekka necessary, for sustained endeavour even though there is no personal gain?
    7. "Is not love for man necessary?" And they said "Yes."
    8. "I go further and say, "Love is not enough; what is required is Maitri. It is wider than love. It means fellowship not merely with human beings but with all living beings. It is not confined to human beings. Is not such Maitri necessary? What else can give to all living beings the same happiness which one seeks for one's own self, to keep the mind impartial, open to all, with affection for every one and hatred for none?"
    9. They all said "Yes."
    10. "The practice of these virtues must, however, be accompanied by Prajna, i.e., intelligence.
    11. "Is not Prajna necessary?" The Parivrajakas gave no answer. To force them to answer his question, the Buddha went on to say that the qualities of a good man are: "do no evil, think nothing that is evil, get his livelihood in no evil way, and say nothing. that is evil or is likely to hurt anyone." And they said, "Yes, so it is."
    12. "But is doing good deeds blindly to be welcomed?" asked the Buddha "I say, 'no'. This is not enough," said the Buddha to the Parivrajakas. "If it was enough," said the Buddha to the Parivrajakas, "then a tiny babe could be proclaimed to be always doing good. For as yet the babe does not know what a body means, much less will it do evil with its body beyond kicking about; it does not know what speech is, much less will it say anything evil beyond crying; it does not know what thought is, beyond crying with delight; it does not know what livelihood is, much less will it get its living in an evil way, beyond sucking its mother.
    13. "The Path of Virtue must, therefore, be subject to [the] test of Prajna, which is another name for understanding and intelligence.
    14. "There is also another reason why Prajna-paramita is so important and so necessary. There must be Dana. But without Prajna, Dana may have a demoralizing effect. There must be Karuna. But without Prajna, Karuna may end in supporting evil. Every act of Paramita must be tested by Prajna Paramita, which is another name for wisdom.
    15. "I premise that there must be knowledge and consciousness of what wrong conduct is, how it arises; similarly, there must also be knowledge and consciousness of what is right conduct and wrong conduct. Without such knowledge there cannot be real goodness, though the act may be good. That is why I say Prajna is a necessary virtue."
    16. The Buddha then concluded his sermon by addressing the following admonition to the Parivrajakas.
    17. "You are likely to call my Dhamma pessimistic, because it calls the attention of mankind to the existence of suffering. I tell you such a view of my Dhamma would be wrong.
    18. "No doubt my Dhamma recognises the existence of suffering, but forget not that it also lays equal stress on the removal of suffering.
    19. "My Dhamma has in it both hope and purpose.
    20. "Its purpose is to remove Avijja, by which I mean ignorance of the existence of suffering.
    21. "There is hope in it because it shows the way to put an end to human suffering.
    22. "Do you agree with this or not?" And the Parivrajakas said , "Yes, we do."

7. The Response of the Parivrajakas
    1. The five Parivrajakas at once realised that this was really a new Dhamma. They were so struck by this new approach to the problems of life that they were unanimous in saying, "Never in the history of the world has any founder of religion taught that the recognition of human suffering was the real basis of religion.
    2. "Never in the history of the world has any founder of religion taught that the removal of this misery is the real purpose of it!
    3. "Never in the history of the world had a scheme of salvation been put forth, so simple in its nature; so free from supernatural and superhuman agency; so independent of, even so antagonistic to, the belief in a soul, to the belief in God and to the belief in life after death!
    4. "Never in the history of the world had a scheme of religion been put forth which had nothing to do with revelation, and whose commands are born of the examination of the social needs of man and which are not the orders of a God !
    5. "Never in the history of the world has salvation been conceived as the blessing of happiness to be attained by man in this life and on this earth, by righteousness born out of his own efforts!"
    6. These were the sentiments which the Parivrajakas uttered after they had heard the Buddha's Sermon on his new Dhamma.
    7. They felt that in him they had found a reformer, full of the most earnest moral purpose and trained in all the intellectual culture of his time, who had the originality and the courage to put forth deliberately and with a knowledge of opposing views, the doctrine of a salvation to be found here, in this life, in inward change of heart to be brought about by the practice of self-culture and self-control.
    8. Their reverence for him became so unbounded that they at once surrendered to him and requested him to accept them as his disciples.
    9. The Buddha admitted them into his order by uttering the formula "Ehi Bhikkave" (come in Bhikkus). They were known as the Panchavargiya Bhikkus.

  ~Babasaheb Ambedkar, Buddha and His Dhamma

Last Words of the Buddha

    1. Then said the Exalted One to the venerable Ananda,
    2. " It may be, Ananda, that you will say: 'Gone is the word of the Master: we have no longer any Master now!' But you must not so regard it, Ananda; for the Norm and discipline taught and enjoyed by me, they shall be your teachers when I am gone.
    3. "Now, Ananda, whereas the brethren have the habit of calling one another ' friend'--when I am gone this habit must not be followed. By an elder brother, Ananda, a brother who is a novice should be called by his name or clan name or by the word 'friend'; but by a novice, Ananda, an elder brother should be addressed as 'Lord' or 'Your reverence.'
    4. "Again, Ananda, if the Order so desires, when I am gone, let it abolish the lesser and minor charges.
    5. "You know, Ananda, the brother Channa. How obstinate, perverse and devoid of the sense of discipline he is.
    6. "And to him, Ananda, let the extreme penalty be applied when I am gone."
    7. "What, Lord, do you mean by 'the extreme penalty'?"
    8.  The brother Channa, Ananda, whatever he may say, is not to be spoken to, not to be admonished, not to be instructed by the brethren. He should be left alone. It might improve him."
    9. Then the Exalted One addressed the brethren:
    10. "It may be, brothers, that in the mind of some one brother there is doubt or perplexity, either about the Buddha, or about the Norm, or the Order, or the Path, or the Way to the Path. If it be so, brothers, do ye ask now. Be not hereafter remorseful at the thought, 'Here was our Master face to face with us, and yet we had not the heart to question the Exalted One, though we were in His very presence.'"
    11. At these words the brethren were silent.
    12. Then a second time, and yet a third time did the Exalted One address the brethren in the same words. And a third time the brethren were silent.
    13. Then said the Exalted One: "May be, brethren, it is out of respect for the Master that ye ask not. Speak to me, then, as friend to friend, brethren."
    14. Whereat those brethren were silent.
    15. Then exclaimed the venerable Ananda to the Exalted One: "Strange it is, Lord! A marvel it is, Lord! Thus assured am I, Lord, of this Order of Brethren. There is not any one brother that has a single doubt or perplexity as to the Buddha, the Norm, the Order, or as to the Path, or the Way to the Path."
    16. "You speak out of assurance, Ananda. But in the Tathagata there is knowledge of the fact. There is not in any one brother a single doubt or perplexity as to this. Of these five hundred brethren of mine, Ananda, even he who is the most backward is a stream-winner, one who is assured from the Downfall, assured of reaching the Supreme Wisdom."
    17. Then said the Exalted One to the brethren:
    18. "Come now, brethren, I do remind ye, 'Subject to decay are all compounded things.' Do ye abide in heedfulness."
    19. Those were the last words of the Exalted One.

The Pali formula for taking refuge

Buddham saranam gacchami I go to the Buddha for refuge.  

Dhammam saranam gacchami I go to the Dhamma for refuge. 

Sangham saranam gacchami I go to the Sangha for refuge.

 Dutiyampi Buddham saranam gacchami For a second time, I go to the Buddha for refuge.  

Dutiyampi Dhammam saranam gacchami For a second time, I go to the Dhamma for refuge. Dutiyampi Sangham saranam gacchami For a second time, I go to the Sangha for refuge.  

Tatiyampi Buddham saranam gacchami For a third time, I go to the Buddha for refuge.  

Tatiyampi Dhammam saranam gacchami For a third time, I go to the Dhamma for refuge. 

Tatiyampi Sangham saranam gacchami For a third time, I go to the Sangha for refuge.

Dr. K. JAMANADAS PROVES TIRUPATI TEMPLE AS A BUDDHIST SHRINE

Introduction by Prof. Dr. M. D. Nalawade,
M.A., B.Ed., LL. B., Ph. D.,
Ex- Registrar,
Retd. Professor and Head of History Dept. Pune University,

The book by K. Jamanadas "Tirupati Balaji was a Buddhist Shrine" has potential credibility to create controversies unknown to historical writing and the Hindu common folks who flock to worship Tirupati Balaji as one of the supreme deities. It is also a new challenge to indologist at a time when politically imbued scholars are engaged to wash out their hands by proving and disproving claims of Hindus and the Muslims against each other as they did over the issue of Ayodhya Shrines. The writing of K. Jamanadas, but stand to the test of researchers and it surpasses all controversial writings relating to Hindu Muslim difference.
Of course, a reader while going through this book requires to be equipped with relative knowledge of the Vedic forms and symbols of worship and the creation of monkhood, prayers and practice of Buddhist way of religious life. The author does not show at any place, his intention to religiously injure anybody and his presentation is purely of academic nature. Neither he intends to dethrone Tirupati Balaji from his present glory nor his popularity. He also does not make any comment on his devotees and his paraphernalia, he has with him. His research is to find out the truth hidden in the origin, growth and glory and his relation with the common man.
An eminent surgeon turned to be an indologist, K. Jamanadas stands for operational methods in the historical research. His study of Tirupati Balaji is the best in the science of architecture, theology and history. It seems from his book that all the essentially necessary and available sources and historical writings related to Balaji are carefully taken into consideration. Of course, one can not confidently say that a new evidence may not come up hereafter.
Religious life and socio-cultural interactions, so also their amalgamations on philosophical lines as well as in day today life among the people of this ancient land have created numerous problems for separating and identifying a particular set of features in a religious life either of the Buddhist or the Hindus except broad features and major differences. The land is the same and the people are also the same, naturally customs and traditions that they have carried on for ages together can not go far away from each other than they were in their previous religious life. There can not be a total change in the manners and etiquettes by changing and earlier religion. The walks of people in the earlier native religion, then to the Vedic which is named by the foreigners as Hinduism and then to Non-Vedic religions i. e. Buddhism and Jainism are through which this land is traveled and people have common following and practices even contradictory customs and philosophies they have through such livings of them although they learnt many things and have come across many images, idols and symbols of worships. The institution of the Viharas in Buddhist period is the first one of its kind as an institution of Temple which attracted the masses to keep its existence either in the manner the Buddhist have or the manner the Brahmin changed to their convenience to influence the masses.
Originally Brahmins and their religion are centered around the system of the institution of Yadyna. The Yadynas of various types such as Isthi, Pashu, Som, Chayan, Sava, Satra and others, for their selfish motives of seeking food, prestige and power. The very institution of Yadyna is to make commoners by way of traits, traps and tricks for sacrifices, the Brahmins are to loose nothing but in all the circumstances gain and gain much more beyond their demands and needs. This is how the institution of Yadyna works.
Nowhere it is found and no text of the Brahmin literature tells that in pre-Buddhist time the Brahmins are vegetarians. The offerings and oblations offered to gods and goddesses so also, the sacrifices made in the Yadynas are basically originated in the minds and tastes of the Brahmins. As being the non - vegetarians or the flesh eaters Brahmins ask the masses to offer such things to gods and to them also. History, therefore of the vegetarian gods in Hinduism opens a new avenue for fresh research in Indology. In pre-Buddhist times cow was never a pious animal and Brahmins of those days are found very fond of cow flesh. Rigvedas are genuine witnesses for that, and the river Charmnyavati is the best example. There is enough of information to know as to how both of her banks are covered over by skins and her waters are redden by the flesh blood of cows and other animals washed into her waters. The very name of the river Charmnyavati in a Rigveda tells many more things as Charm - means skin. The river banks of this river are used for performing Yadynas and the cows are used in sacrifices on large scale in the Yadynas. The whole delta of the river seems to have seen as how Cow Satra - Killing of cows is carried on and the name, therefore, of the river Charmnyavati in a Rigveda confirms the same.
The institution of Yadyna and sacrificing or killing cows in it is very much vital if it is understood against the agricultural background of those times. In those days no other animals but bullocks are used mostly for tilling the soil. Killing of the cows means no bullocks and no bullocks means no farming, no agricultural products. As a result there is starvation and then submission to enemies or the rulers of the religion. The pre-Buddhist times, therefore, are worse in a regard to atrocities and injustices carried on, on the Peasant communities. Fortunately but lord Buddha understands the grave situation and stops cow sacrifices in the Yadynas and prevents the slaughtering of cows. He, thus becomes the First saviour of cows who preached farmers in ancient times not to offer cows to Brahmins and in the Yadynas. Under the circumstances it is very safe to hold a view that the adoption of cow as a pious one in later days and vegetarian food for gods and to the Brahmins for themselves is one of the greatest achievements of Buddhism, but it has to pay its cost in return of that achievement because the Brahmins adopted their means and methods to attract and lure the farming communities and attack Buddhism. It is thus the Hindus and the academicians have to admit that the creation of non - vegetarian gods is not the creation of the Brahmins. Therefore, it is in vain to trace out the origin of gods who are vegetarians in pre-Buddhist times. Morality and non-violence are never the cardinal principles of Brahminical teaching and religion. They are the Buddhist and they are most unacceptable for the Brahmins in those early days.
The institution of Temple that the Brahmins practice and which exists at 'Tirupati Balaji' and at all the places of the Hindus is origin in Buddhism as K. Jamanadas rightly states that there are a good number of evidences to prove those facts. The walks of people in the ancient times from one sect or religion to another, from native religion to Vedic, Vedic to Non-Vedic religions that is Buddhism and jainism and then back to Mixed- Vedic or Brahminical religion, although, outwardly, have changed them in adopting different religious names and ultimately, the Brahminism to which popularly called as Hinduism, they continued to practice many of the customs and traditions they liked most and were most difficult for them to unalienate. And to their convenience Brahmins have very skillfully converted Buddhists forms of worship and prayers quite in consonance to Brahminical or Hindu ideals. Therefore, separation and identification of many images, idols and temples have become to show exactly that they either belong to Buddhists or Hindus but as Buddhism is made to disappear, Brahmins claimed them, in totality as the Hindus. And the history of Hindu vegetarian gods is certainly hidden in such changes and conversions from Buddhism to Hinduism.
The book is divided into four parts, but the main theme is dealt with in the second and third parts. Part first naturally begins with earlier findings and interpretations about the strife between Buddhism and Brahminism. The mature saintly opinion of Swami Vivekanand that " Buddhism was mainly responsible for stopping or lessening the customs of drinking wine and killing living animals for sacrifice or for food in India" during the dominance and arrogance of the Brahminical period is given at very appropriate instance. "Buddhism and Vaishnavism are not two different things" as is stated by the Great Swami to make clear that, "During the decline of Buddhism in India, Hinduism tool from her a few cardinal tenets of conduct and made them her own, and these have now come to be known as Vaishnavism". The author, not out of vindictive mood, but purely from academic interest collected sources and evidences, that too again from the Hindu saints and scholars to reveal the truth and truth alone as the proud heritage of this ancient land.
Brahmin's usurpation and imitation of the Buddhist customs, traditions and ideals, so also of forms of architecture , art and sculpture are very common and long back indologists and historians like R. G. Bhandarkar and D. D. Kosambi have brought all those thing to light. The sites at Ter, Aihole, Undavali, Ellora, Badrinatha, Ayodhya, Sringeri, Buddha Gaya and other religious important places have ably been shown as how richly influenced by Buddhist religion and culture and Brahmins have adopted them to their tastes to make the masses feel religiously at home as the Hindus. A fresh touch is given to reascertain for the proved facts by R. G. Bhandarkar, R. C. Dhere and others that the temples of Lord Jagannatha of Puri, Vithalla of Pandharpur, Ayyappa of Kerala, Srisailam of Karnataka and many others as they were originally the Buddhist temples.
The real task of discovering Lord Tirupati as the Buddhist Shrine starts in the Second part. The history given of the worship of Vishnu needs to be added by the information of hymns in Rigveda. Max Muller, Muir and Wilson who have well explained the importance of Vishnu and his Three Strides - Trivikrama. In the Purnsha - Sukta of the Yajurvda (1-31-32) has his description. And to collaborate the original concept of his creation and creating his three different images and the necessities of the Brahmins to convert him in appearance like lord Buddha are not unintentional and without any selfish motive. The author has ably proved that such efforts of the Brahmins have expected good results for them to show their superiority over Buddhism. The chapters- Hindu Shilpa Shastra on Vishnu Images, Nature Image of the Lord of Tirumalai, Is the Image of a Female deity, Is the Lord A Harihara Murthi, and the Account In Venkaechala Itihas Mala, are interesting and thought provoking. They make even commoners to think twice whether he is worshiping Buddhist images or Hindu images and what is his place in such a controversies The reference from a book of Shri. Sitapati P., on Shri. Venkateswara is of great importance in support of author's theory on Tirupati Balaji. The reference runs -"The image (of Lord Tirumalai) bears some resemblance to the famous Budhisattva Padmapani painting in cave I of the Ajanta Hills". This statement, is thus, self explanatory to record the attempts.
Part third of the book has debased old challenges of the Hindu claims in South India. How "not only ideals and morals but also temples were taken over by Brahmins" has been aptly shown quoting well known authorities in the field and interpreting the original sources. It is very interesting to know the even Tirtha Yatras are started by the Buddhists and the Brahmins followed them from the Buddhist traditions to forget their earlier Buddhist religion and traditions. The Kalavars and Kalabhras, the names of clans and families quite in resemblance to Kalewar, kalawad or Kalawade and kalbhor, Bhor, Kalmegh and even Kale in Maharashtra are not without their historical roots. The Kalabhras mentioned by the author belonged to Chola country and are the Buddhist, but later on converted to Brahminism.
The claim put forth by the author on Lord Tirupati Balaji as a Buddhist Shrine is based on sound theory and the evidences approved and accepted by the academicians. The fundamental questions which needs to be correctly answered to prove Tirupati Balaji as a Buddhist Shrine have the following points and which are well taken into account--
1. Yet why the attributes of Murthi are not allowed to be discussed openly and publicly?
2. Tirupati has no parivar devatas, his family members as gods. why?
3. And as to why it is the only ek-devata temple in whole of India.?
4. There was no regular worship of this Tirupati till 966 A. D, Why was it?
5.Why the various murthis are not recognised in this temple by their Agamic names?
The term "self manifested" applied to Tirumalai means that the Murthi or idol is existed earlier and it is at that place only. It is found by one Shudra Rangadasa. Then it is resurrected and worshiping it began. Before the Muslims came, Buddhists are the only people who opposed the Brahmins. But no Buddhist King nor Buddhist people are intolerant towards the Brahmins and no evidence is yet produced by any scholar proving that the Buddhists or any Buddhist King made efforts for destroying Brahminical images, idols or places of worship. In fact the Brahmins have done hundreds of such things and they are in reality the enemies of the Buddhists. Hence allowing the Murthi or idol of Tirumalai uncared, then the quarrel over its possession in between the Vaishnavism and Shaivism, all such matter never happens in case of the original idols of Hindu or Brahminical gods. Fortunately till this day this Lord is mistaken and misunderstood as Shiva or Vishnu and as the Vaishnavaites and Shavaites claim him as if he belongs to one of the two, he grows in eminence. In reality the place and the idol are the Buddhist one, which eternally convey the message of well being to all people.
Temple institution is the creation of the Buddhist people and to grab that glory the Brahmins have usurped the Buddhists Temples for their selfish purpose and to attract the masses and then have converted those temples into Hindu forms making necessary changes and alterations. A good number of authorities have proved long ago and many of the authorities on the subject like R. G. Bhandarkar, Percy Brown, G. S. Ghurey, L. M. Joshi, D. D. Kosambi, K. A. N. Sastri, K. R. Vaidyanthan and others have been taken into consideration in the spirit and letters they presented numerous sources and evidences.
So far the story of Lord of Tirumalai stands historically and on the basis of the available sources it is a Buddhist Shrine. Right from its name, fashions and styles, so also customs like the Tonsure, offering of hair and Rathyatra it is all in one - the Buddhist way. Rathayatra is not originated in the Brahminical life due to caste system and observance of untouchability and touch no one those who even from your kin and kith if they are unbathed and the women of their blood also. Under the circumstances Rathayatra tradition is certainly of the Buddhist origin and where ever it is carried on, the places and gods are the Buddhists, without any doubt. The author K. Jamanadas has maintained throughout his work a very high standard of argument and at all instances he placed either the authorities or the evidence in support of his argument and statements.
Although in the socio-cultural life of this country, it introverts all of those who have their origin in this land, to positively come up for better understanding as if it is vicissitude as the times and culture demand. A good lesson will also be derived out of the reading of this thesis for making this land as if of one people with an appeal to both the Hindus and the Muslims to know their best of heritage and noble humane way of life in Buddhism as one people, blessed and guided eternally by that Great, Supreme Lord, Bhagawn Buddha, the Great.

What are the Triple Gems? (Tisarana)

The Triple Gems - or the Three Jewels - of Buddhism refer to the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha.

Buddha

The Buddha was born in 543 BC in what is now known as Nepal and was given the name Siddhattha Gotama. At the age of 29 he renounced the life as the son of a king and became a homeless ascetic. After six year's of practice and contemplation, Buddha attained Nibbana (Nirvana), and spent the next 45 years with tireless teaching until he died at the age of 80.

Dhamma

The Dhamma (Dharma) is the teachings of the Buddha, which has been handed down in the ancient Pali language, and preserved in three collections of hooks, called the Tipitaka (the three baskets). The Dhamma is not a doctrine of revelation, but offers a realistic system of ethics and analysis as well as practical methods of mind trainings.

Sangha

The Sangha is the order of Bhikkhus (mendicant monks) founded by the Buddha and which still exists in its original form throughout South East Asia. The purpose of the Sangha is to provide the outer framework and favorable conditions for all those who wish to practice the path.
The triple gems form the Threefold Refuge of the Buddhists. One declares oneself a Buddhist by reciting this formula:

To the Buddha I go for refuge ( Buddham Saranam Gacchami)
To the Dhamma I go for refuge ( Dhammam Saranam Gacchami)
To the Sangha I go for refuge ( Sangham Saranam Gacchami)

For the second time - to the Buddha I go for refuge
For the second time - to the Dhamma I go for refuge
For the second time - to the Sangha I go for refuge

For the third time - to the Buddha I go for refuge
For the third time - to the Dhamma I go for refuge
For the third time - to the Sangha I go for refuge

The recitation can be seen as professing ones acceptance of the triple gems as the guides of ones life and thought.

Courtesy: buddhasociety

THE FOURTH NOBLE TRUTH MAGGA: THE PATH

The Fourth Noble Truth is that of the Way leading to the Cessation of Dukkha (Dukkhanirodhagāminīpaṭipadā-ariyasacca). This is known as the ‘Middle Path’ (Majjhimā Paṭipadā), because it avoids two extremes: one extreme being the search for happiness through the pleasures of the senses, which is ‘low, common, unprofitable and the way of the ordinary people’; the other being the search for happiness through self-mortification in different forms of asceticism, which is ‘painful, unworthy and unprofitable’. Having himself first tried these two extremes, and having found them to be useless, the Buddha discovered through personal experience the Middle Path ‘which gives vision and knowledge, which leads to Calm, Insight, Enlightenment, Nirvāṇa’. This Middle Path is generally referred to as the Noble Eightfold Path (Ariya-Aṭṭhaṅgika-Magga), because it is composed of eight categories or divisions: namely,

1. Right Understanding (Sammā diṭṭhi)

2. Right Thought (Sammā saṅkappa)

3. Right Speech (Sammā vācā)

4. Right Action (Sammā kammanta)

5. Right Livelihood (Sammā ājīva)

6. Right Effort (Sammā vāyāma)

7. Right Mindfulness (Sammā sati)

8. Right Concentration (Sammā samādhi)

Practically the whole teaching of the Buddha, to which he devoted himself during 45 years, deals in some way or other with this Path. He explained it in different ways in different words to different people, according to the stage of their development and their capacity to understand and follow him. But the essence of those many thousand discourses scattered in the Buddhist Scriptures is found in the Noble Eightfold Path.

It should not be thought that the eight categories or divisions of the Path should be followed and practised one after the other in the numerical order as given in the usual list above. But they are to be developed more or less simultaneously, as far as possible according to the capacity of each individual. They are all linked together and each helps the cultivation of the others.

These eight factors aim at promoting and perfecting the three essentials of Buddhist training and discipline: namely: (a) Ethical Conduct (Sīla), (b) Mental Discipline (Samādhi) and (c) Wisdom (Paññā).[116] It will therefore be more helpful for a coherent and better understanding of the eight divisions of the Path, if we group them and explain them according to these three heads.

Ethical Conduct (Sīla) is built on the vast conception of universal love and compassion for all living beings, on which the Buddha’s teaching is based. It is regrettable that many scholars forget this great ideal of the Buddha’s teaching, and indulge in only dry philosophical and metaphysical divagations when they talk and write about Buddhism. The Buddha gave his teaching ‘for the good of the many, for the happiness of the many, out of compassion for the world’ (bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya lokānukampāya).

According to Buddhism for a man to be perfect there are two qualities that he should develop equally: compassion (karuṇā) on one side, and wisdom (paññā) on the other. Here compassion represents love, charity, kindness, tolerance and such noble qualities on the emotional side, or qualities of the heart, while wisdom would stand for the intellectual side or the qualities of the mind. If one develops only the emotional neglecting the intellectual, one may become a good-hearted fool; while to develop only the intellectual side neglecting the emotional may turn one into a hard-hearted intellect without feeling for others. Therefore, to be perfect one has to develop both equally. That is the aim of the Buddhist way of life: in it wisdom and compassion are inseparably linked together, as we shall see later.

Now, in Ethical Conduct (Sīla), based on love and compassion, are included three factors of the Noble Eightfold Path: namely, Right Speech, Right Action and Right Livelihood. (Nos. 3, 4 and 5 in the list).

Right speech means abstention (1) from telling lies, (2) from backbiting and slander and talk that may bring about hatred, enmity, disunity and disharmony among individuals or groups of people, (3) from harsh, rude, impolite, malicious and abusive language, and (4) from idle, useless and foolish babble and gossip. When one abstains from these forms of wrong and harmful speech one naturally has to speak the truth, has to use words that are friendly and benevolent, pleasant and gentle, meaningful and useful. One should not speak carelessly: speech should be at the right time and place. If one cannot say something useful, one should keep ‘noble silence’.

Right Action aims at promoting moral, honourable and peaceful conduct. It admonishes us that we should abstain from destroying life, from stealing, from dishonest dealings, from illegitimate sexual intercourse, and that we should also help others to lead a peaceful and honourable life in the right way.

Right Livelihood means that one should abstain from making one’s living through a profession that brings harm to others, such as trading in arms and lethal weapons, intoxicating drinks, poisons, killing animals, cheating, etc., and should live by a profession which is honourable, blameless and innocent of harm to others. One can clearly see here that Buddhism is strongly opposed to any kind of war, when it lays down that trade in arms and lethal weapons is an evil and unjust means of livelihood.

These three factors (Right Speech, Right Action and Right Livelihood) of the Eightfold Path constitute Ethical Conduct. It should be realized that the Buddhist ethical and moral conduct aims at promoting a happy and harmonious life both for the individual and for society. This moral conduct is considered as the indispensable foundation for all higher spiritual attainments. No spiritual development is possible without this moral basis.

Next comes Mental Discipline, in which are included three other factors of the Eightfold Path: namely, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness (or Attentiveness) and Right Concentration. (Nos. 6, 7 and 8 in the list.)

Right Effort is the energetic will (1) to prevent evil and unwholesome states of mind from arising, and (2) to get rid of such evil and unwholesome states that have already arisen within a man, and also (3) to produce, to cause to arise, good and wholesome states of mind not yet arisen, and (4) to develop and bring to perfection the good and wholesome states of mind already present in a man.

Right Mindfulness (or Attentiveness) is to be diligently aware, mindful and attentive with regard to (1) the activities of the body (kāya), (2) sensations or feelings (vedanā), (3) the activities of the mind (citta) and (4) ideas, thoughts, conceptions and things (dhamma).

The practice of concentration on breathing (ānāpānasati) is one of the well-known exercises, connected with the body, for mental development. There are several other ways of developing attentiveness in relation to the body – as modes of meditation.

With regard to sensations and feelings, one should be clearly aware of all forms of feelings and sensations, pleasant, unpleasant and neutral, of how they appear and disappear within oneself.

Concerning the activities of mind, one should be aware whether one’s mind is lustful or not, given to hatred or not, deluded or not, distracted or concentrated, etc. In this way one should be aware of all movements of mind, how they arise and disappear.

As regards ideas, thoughts, conceptions and things, one should know their nature, how they appear and disappear, how they are developed, how they are suppressed, and destroyed, and so on.

These four forms of mental culture or meditation are treated in detail in the Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta (Setting-up of Mindfulness).[117]

The third and last factor of Mental Discipline is Right Concentration leading to the four stages of Dhyāna, generally called trance or recueillement. In the first stage of Dhyāna, passionate desires and certain unwholesome thoughts like sensuous lust, ill-will, languor, worry, restlessness, and skeptical doubt are discarded, and feelings of joy and happiness are maintained, along with certain mental activities. In the second stage, all intellectual activities are suppressed, tranquillity and ‘one-pointedness’ of mind developed, and the feelings of joy and happiness are still retained. In the third stage, the feeling of joy, which is an active sensation, also disappears, while the disposition of happiness still remains in addition to mindful equanimity. In the fourth stage of Dhyāna, all sensations, even of happiness and unhappiness, of joy and sorrow, disappear, only pure equanimity and awareness remaining.

Thus the mind is trained and disciplined and developed through Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.

The remaining two factors, namely Right Thought and Right Understanding go to constitute Wisdom.

Right Thought denotes the thoughts of selfless renunciation or detachment, thoughts of love and thoughts of non-violence, which are extended to all beings. It is very interesting and important to note here that thoughts of selfless detachment, love and non-violence are grouped on the side of wisdom. This clearly shows that true wisdom is endowed with these noble qualities, and that all thoughts of selfish desire, ill-will, hatred and violence are the result of a lack of wisdom – in all spheres of life whether individual, social, or political.

Right Understanding is the understanding of things as they are, and it is the Four Noble Truths that explain things as they really are. Right Understanding therefore is ultimately reduced to the understanding of the Four Noble Truths. This understanding is the highest wisdom which sees the Ultimate Reality. According to Buddhism there are two sorts of understanding: What we generally call understanding is knowledge, an accumulated memory, an intellectual grasping of a subject according to certain given data. This is called ‘knowing accordingly’ (anubodha). It is not very deep. Real deep understanding is called ‘penetration’ (paṭivedha), seeing a thing in its true nature, without name and label. This penetration is possible only when the mind is free from all impurities and is fully developed through meditation.[118]

From this brief account of the Path, one may see that it is a way of life to be followed, practised and developed by each individual. It is self-discipline in body, word and mind, self-development and self-purification. It has nothing to do with belief, prayer, worship or ceremony. In that sense, it has nothing which may popularly be called ‘religious’. It is a Path leading to the realization of Ultimate Reality, to complete freedom, happiness and peace through moral, spiritual and intellectual perfection.

In Buddhist countries there are simple and beautiful customs and ceremonies on religious occasions. They have little to do with the real Path. But they have their value in satisfying certain religious emotions and the needs of those who are less advanced, and helping them gradually along the Path.

With regard to the Four Noble Truths we have four functions to perform:

The First Noble Truth is Dukkha, the nature of life, its suffering, its sorrows and joys, its imperfection and unsatisfactoriness, its impermanence and insubstantially. With regard to this, our function is to understand it as a fact, clearly and completely (pariññeyya).

The Second Noble Truth is the Origin of Dukka, which is desire, ‘thirst’, accompanied by all other passions, defilements and impurities. A mere understanding of this fact is not sufficient. Here our function is to discard it, to eliminate, to destroy and eradicate it (pahātabba).

The Third Noble Truth is the Cessation of Dukkha, Nirvāṇa, the Absolute Truth, the Ultimate Reality. Here our function is to realize it (sacchikātabba).

The Fourth Noble Truth is the Path leading to the realization of Nirvāṇa. A mere knowledge of the Path, however complete, will not do. In this case, our function is to follow it and keep to it (bhāvetabba).[119]

---

[116] M I (PTS), p. 301.

[117] See Chapter VII on Meditation.

[118] Vism. (PTS), p. 510.

[119] Mhvg. (Alutgama, 1922), p. 10.